Justice And Human Dignity

Such ideas can be traced back to the ancient civilisations of Babylon, China and India. They contributed to the laws of Greek and Roman society and are central to Buddhist, Christian, Confucian, Hindu, Islamic and Jewish teachings. Concepts of ethics, justice and dignity were also important in societies which have not left written records, but consist of oral histories such as those of Indigenous people in Australia and elsewhere.

Ideas about justice were prominent in the thinking of philosophers in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. An important strand in this thinking was that there was a 'natural law' that stood above the law of rulers. This meant that individuals had certain rights simply because they were human beings. Significant development in thinking about human rights took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

This found expression in the American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789). Whereas earlier the focus had been on the sovereignty of rulers, the emphasis now started to shift to the rights of the individual as against the state, with its associated ideas of fundamental freedoms that people should be able to enjoy.

The American Declaration of Independence stated:

'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.'

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw continuing advances in social progress, for example in the abolition of slavery, the widespread provision of education and the extension of political rights. Despite these advances, international activity on human rights remained weak. The general attitude was that nations could do what they liked within their borders and that other countries and the broader international community had no basis for intervening or even raising concerns when rights were violated. This is expressed in the term 'sovereignty' or the sovereign rights of a state to govern as it pleases, make whatever laws or decrees it wishes, leaving it to others to condemn, praise or ignore.

The atrocities and violations of human rights that occurred during World War II galvanised worldwide opinion and made human rights a universal concern. During World War II millions of soldiers and civilians were killed or maimed. The Nazi regime in Germany created concentration camps for certain groups - including Jews, communists, homosexuals and political opponents. Some of these people were used as slave labour; others were exterminated in mass executions. The Japanese occupation of China and other Asian countries was marked by frequent and large-scale brutality toward local populations. Japanese forces took thousands of prisoners of war who were used as slave labour, with no medical treatment and inadequate food.

The promotion and protection of human rights became an Allied war objective after U.S. President Roosevelt proclaimed the 'Four Freedoms' - freedom of speech and belief, and freedom from want and fear - in 1941. The war ended in 1945, but only after the destruction of millions of lives, including through the first and only use of atomic weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many countries were devastated by the war, and millions of people died or became homeless refugees.

As the war drew to a close, the victorious powers decided to establish a world organisation that would prevent further conflict and help build a better world. This new organisation was the United Nations, usually known as the UN, which came into existence in 1945. The purposes of the UN were essentially fourfold: to ensure peace and security, to promote economic development, to promote the development of international law and to ensure the observance of human rights. In pursuit of these goals, member governments of the UN have set up a vast and complex array of organisations covering virtually every area of human activity.

The UN's strong emphasis on human rights made it different from previous international organisations. UN member countries believed that the protection of human rights would provide for freedom, justice and peace for all in the future.

The beginning of the UN's basic document, the UN Charter, stated that the peoples of the United Nations were determined:

'… to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small … and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom …

In its early years, the UN set about establishing and documenting basic human rights standards that would serve all people and all nations. It has continued to expand the range of standards that set out the obligations that governments and people can be expected to live up to. In doing this the UN was aware of the rights of sovereign states to decide whether they would be bound under International law by these standards or whether they would incorporate these standards into domestic legislation.

The process of writing these documents takes place in UN meetings, where representatives of the governments of all the UN's member countries put their views and negotiate agreements about the acceptable wording. At the end of this process the UN takes a decision on whether or not to officially 'adopt' the document in question. This is done through the UN's peak body, the General Assembly.

The first major achievement of the UN in the field of human rights was the adoption by the General Assembly of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The details of the wording of the Universal Declaration were hotly disputed by the members of the UN but its adoption was extremely important in the history of human rights and international law.

Australia played an active role in the writing of the Universal Declaration. The Australian Foreign Minister at the time, Dr H.V. Evatt, was Chairman of the UN General Assembly when the Universal Declaration was adopted.

The United Nations then went on to draft many other treaties and declarations, many of which drew on the wording and ideas contained in the Universal Declaration. These human rights 'instruments', as they are called, have specified how various rights apply to specific groups of people such as women or children. They have also introduced new concepts that had not been part of the thinking of those who originally drafted the Universal Declaration. For those countries that have accepted them, the instruments have created an obligation on governments in international law to observe the rights they set out.

The human rights standards developed by the UN have had a profound influence on the national law of the various UN member states, including Australia. In the legal systems of some countries, international treaties automatically become the law of the land. In Australia's case, it is necessary to pass implementing legislation through the Australian Parliament.

International human rights standards and national human rights laws are seen as essential to the observance of human rights in particular countries. It is important that both states and its people be vigilant about the dangers of human rights abuse, and that individuals should know about their rights and the rights of others and that they should be able to use international and national law as well as the legal system and national human rights institutions to ensure that the promise of human rights protection is realised.